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The aforementioned ascetics are thought to be the earliest examples of the Yemeni ascetic movement. Following his conversion to Islam, Abu Musa was permitted by the Prophet ﷺ to move to Abyssinia with a few other converts, where he remained until the conquest of Khaybar took place in 629. Subsequently, he was dispatched to his homeland with the mission to spread Islam and succeeded in converting over fifty individuals. Upon his arrival in Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ looked at his companions and said: “People have come to you from Yemen. They are the most amicable and gentle-hearted of people. Faith is of Yemen, and wisdom is Yemeni”. 

The ascetic movement in Yemen, emerging after the ninth century, can be seen as a continued expression of inherited ascetic inclinations that have roots tracing back to the pre-Islamic era. Additionally, the mystical aspects that inspired the Yemeni ascetics and many other ascetics and pious individuals from throughout the Islamic world to expand and take part in asceticism’s overall development were supported by the Qur’an. While mystical tendencies initially surfaced in the ninth century and initially stayed at the individual level without gaining widespread acceptance, the profound influence of Islam on the Sufi movement is evident in their practices of penitence, self-renunciation, self-purification, self-improvement, rigorous Quranic and Sunnah meditation, unwavering God-consciousness, and the embodiment of exemplary piety. These pious features are considered attitudes that are favorable to the mystical goal, even though they remained confined and undeveloped in the early centuries of Islam.

One of the most celebrated passages of the Qur'an that had attracted many ascetic Yemenis to embrace the Sufi way of life is the so-called "verse of light," which became a subject of constant meditation. The Holy Quran witnesses: 

ٱللَّهُ نُورُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۚ مَثَلُ نُورِهِۦ كَمِشْكَوٰةٍۢ فِيهَا مِصْبَاحٌ ۖ ٱلْمِصْبَاحُ فِى زُجَاجَةٍ ۖ ٱلزُّجَاجَةُ كَأَنَّهَا كَوْكَبٌۭ دُرِّىٌّۭ يُوقَدُ مِن شَجَرَةٍۢ مُّبَـٰرَكَةٍۢ زَيْتُونَةٍۢ لَّا شَرْقِيَّةٍۢ وَلَا غَرْبِيَّةٍۢ يَكَادُ زَيْتُهَا يُضِىٓءُ وَلَوْ لَمْ تَمْسَسْهُ نَارٌۭ ۚ نُّورٌ عَلَىٰ نُورٍۢ ۗ يَهْدِى ٱللَّهُ لِنُورِهِۦ مَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَيَضْرِبُ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْأَمْثَـٰلَ لِلنَّاسِ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عَلِيمٌۭ

Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things. (Holy Quran: 24/35)

In summary, the Qur'an played a pivotal role in shaping the beliefs of Sufis at large and, more specifically, Yemeni mystics. These texts served as the initial sources from which Yemeni mystics embarked on their spiritual quests, laying the groundwork for the proliferation of Islamic mysticism in the region. Throughout history, and especially in contemporary times, the Qur'an has had a profound impact on the emergence and evolution of mystical teachings.

For several reasons, Yemen's spiritual era, spanning from the seventh century to the close of the tenth century, exhibited a notable decline in intellectual activities. To begin with, it is evident that during the ninth and into the tenth century, there was a shift in international trade routes, moving from Yemen and the Red Sea to Iraq and the Persian Gulf. This shift had far-reaching consequences, leading to economic and cultural downturns. In addition to this, the waves of emigration after the Arab conquests had a detrimental effect on the cultural and political landscape of the country, particularly during the seventh century. While the early Islamic community expanded into regions such as Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Khurasan, and beyond, the Yemeni state grew isolated and, due to diminishing economic resources, was largely neglected. Historians and Yemeni chronicles often portray this historical period as one marked by intellectual and cultural stagnation and passivity.

The ideas and discussions in Yemen after the ninth century began to gradually move away from practices centered on the renunciation of worldly pleasures toward the spread of profound mystical beliefs. The primary causes of this transformation were the integration of Arabic culture and acceptance of various Western cultural ideas that had started to spread throughout the Islamic world, including Yemen. 

In Yemen, Sufis find themselves at the far end of the religio-political spectrum, presenting themselves as followers of their devout ancestors (إتباع السلف). On the contrary, their opponents, the Wahabis, label them as "grave worshippers" (القربيون) and accuse them of introducing innovations and superstitious beliefs (أصحاب البدعة والكفرة). Some critics of the Yemeni Sufiyya even go to the extent of blaming them for the country's perceived lack of progress. Furthermore, the Sufis and their adversaries differ significantly in their stances toward certain religious observances, particularly in their attitudes regarding the Prophet's birthday and the Night Journey and Ascension to Jannah (الإسراء والمعراج). On occasion, Salafi activists may attempt to disrupt these events, even resorting to harassment or physical attacks against the participants.

Presently, the Sufis of Tarim found a truly charismatic and energetic leader in Sayyid Habeeb Umar bin Hafiz, popularly known as Habeeb Omar. He is an eloquent preacher. He opened a religious college of Neo-traditional orientation on the outskirts of Tarim, called Dar al Musthafa. His reputation has drawn in a multitude of followers from various corners of the Muslim world, with a particular emphasis on regions such as Africa, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Notably, among his disciples, there are also around a dozen individuals who have converted to Islam from Europe and North America.

Sufism is a spiritual practice to help one transform their glitches and find harmony with God. It is a selfless experience and actualization of truth through love, devotion, and dedication. Reputable Sufi scholars consider that the development of Islam marks the beginning of the Sufi traditions. Since then, Sufism has expanded as a philosophy, ideology, and doctrine to encompass all aspects of human life.

Arab Sufi leaders play a vital role in the global spread of Sufism. Utilizing their literary works, they aid in the development of Sufism. Many schools in Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Turkey, India, Indonesia and other parts of the Islamic world consider Sufism as one of the considered Islamic doctrines. There is no doubt that the Ayyubids importantly contributed to the establishment of Sufism in Yemen. They adopt Sufi thoughts and encourage establishing schools and institutions in the twelfth century.

● Alexander knish, Islamic Mysticism: A short history.

● Christopher Melchert, “The Transition from Asceticism to Mysticism at the middle of the Ninth Century”. 

● Muhammed Ali Aziz, “Religion and Mysticism in Early Islam: Theology and Sufism in Yemen”. Published on 24 March 2011

● Muhammed Ali Qasimi Aziz, “Medieval Sufism in Yemen”, University of Michigan. 2004.

● الصوفية في اليمن النشأة والمنهج / الباحث محمد حمحدعبد الله صالح السنفى

● The Tariqa On Landcruiser: the resurgence of Sufism in Yemen. Author, Alexander Knysh, Middle East Journal, Vol 55, No 3 (2001).

● Islam charithra paathayiloode , Kuttasheri Muhammed.

● Sufism, Al Muneer , 2017/ published by Pattikkad Noorul Ulama Publications.

● حقائق التصوف  / عبد القادر عيسى

● Islamika samooha charithram /Part 4/ Sarwath Soulath

● Keralathinte Yemeni Parambaryam / Mamburam THangal / Moyin Hudawi Malayamma, Mahmood hudawi Panangara.

Mohammad Jasim is a PG research scholar at Darul Huda Islamic University, Chemmad, Kerala, India. He is also pursuing a degree in BA Honors in History at Indira Gandhi National Open University. He can be contacted at Jasimjaz525@gmail.com Mohammad Jasim is a PG research scholar at Darul Huda Islamic University, Chemmad, Kerala, India. He is also pursuing a degree in BA Honors in History at Indira Gandhi National Open University. He can be contacted at Jasimjaz525@gmail.com