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Is cleanliness (ṭahārah) a cornerstone in Islam? Why does a Muslim need to repeat wuḍū’ multiple times every day? How does one purify themselves from a seminally defiled state through bathing? What is the purpose behind the stringent rulings related to ṭahārah? These are among the questions that may arise for anyone who reflects on the extensive rulings of Islamic hygienical jurisprudence (fiqh al-Ṭahārah). After explaining the rulings related to wuḍū’ and tayammum (dry ablution) in the verse al-Mā’idah: 6, Allah says: “God does not want to impose any hardship on you, but wants to make you pure, and to bestow upon you the full measure of His blessings, so that you might have cause to be grateful.” Hints of answers to these questions can be found in this verse.

Firstly, the rulings of ṭahārah are meant to uphold purity on both individual and social levels. Secondly, they aim to seek the pleasure of the Almighty, the ultimate goal of a Muslim in both this world and the hereafter. Thirdly, they are not a burden but rather an extension of Allah's mercy towards His servants, a perspective that becomes evident upon deeper reflection.

In connection with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Islamic rulings on cleanliness contribute significantly to Goal 3: Good Health and Well-Being. By emphasizing personal and communal hygiene, the practices of wuḍū’, ghusl, and other aspects of ṭahārah reduce the risk of disease transmission, promote physical health, and ensure a clean environment, which aligns with global efforts to improve health and hygiene standards worldwide.

Cleanliness in Islamic Jurisprudence

Cleanliness is regarded as a key and integral part of worship, serving as a constant reminder of the thorough external and internal purity required in a Muslim's life. Several spiritual, social, and medical implications are embedded within the broader concept of ṭahārah. For instance, a significant spiritual implication of wuḍūʾ is beautifully captured in the following hadith:

"When a Muslim washes his face in ablution, every sin that he committed with his eyes will be washed away with the last drop of water. When he washes his hands, every sin he committed with his hands will be washed away with the last drop of water. When he washes his feet, every sin that he committed with his feet will be washed away with the last drop of water, until he emerges purified from sin" (Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim: 244).

In light of this hadith, wuḍūʾ not only cleanses the physical organs but also serves as a spiritual purification, washing away the sins committed by those organs. This duality underscores the depth of ṭahārah in Islam, blending tangible hygiene with inner moral refinement, thereby nurturing both body and soul.

In the ruling that prohibits going to the masjid for jamāʿah prayer after eating garlic or onion, we can see the aspect of ṭahārah in dealing with fellow beings (al-Bukhārī: 5452). By this concern for oral hygiene, Islam takes the seemingly insignificant harm of bad breath to fellow people into account and prohibits it at the cost of missing the reward of congregational prayer in the masjid. Here, the notion of ṭahārah moves beyond individual duty to emphasize its obligation in social interactions. Additionally, Islam encourages using perfume at various times, including when going to the masjid for jamāʿah.

In the interest of medical benefits, several rulings in fiqh al-ṭahārah demonstrate a relationship between Prophetic practices and modern health principles, such as the sunnah of brushing teeth and maintaining oral hygiene, or regular handwashing and its role in preventing communicable diseases.

This emphasis on hygiene and public health aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 3, which seeks to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all.

The notion of cleanliness is placed in a hierarchical structure. It starts from the purification of oneself and surroundings from physical and ritual impurities (najas wa ḥadath), which is the subject matter of fiqh al-Ṭahārah. The next step is to abstain from all types of major and minor sins, and the subsequent level is cleansing the heart from all evil thoughts and indecent inclinations. The final layer focuses on sanitizing the soul from everything except Allah, a position of the closest servants of Allah in which they profoundly immerse in the uncorrupted submission to the Almighty.

Given the first step, fiqh al-Ṭahārah is promoted as an opening chapter in most juristic texts, offering detailed and pragmatic guidelines for leading a clean life in a holistic paradigm. Fiqh al-Ṭahārah encompasses sub-chapters such as (1) different kinds of water, (2) the utensils used to keep water in, (3) items that could be mixed with water, (4) wuḍū’, (5) tayammum, (6) ghusl (bath), (7) menstruation, (8) dietary laws and (9) toilet etiquette.

The guidelines in fiqh al-ṭahārah align with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 3, 6, and 12. Practices such as wuḍū’, ghusl, and dietary laws promote good health and well-being (Goal 3) by emphasizing hygiene and disease prevention, paralleling modern public health strategies. The focus on water purity and sanitation reflects the importance of clean water and responsible usage (Goal 6), while dietary laws and guidance on resource use encourage sustainable consumption and reduced waste (Goal 12). These principles highlight how fiqh al-ṭahārah contributes to fostering health-conscious, sustainable, and environmentally responsible communities.

Ḥadath (state of ritual impurity) is divided into two: (1) major such as sexual relation and menstruation, which requires ghusl (ritual bath), and (2) minor such as urine, defecation and passing wind, which requires wuḍū’. Ṭahārah is achieved through mainly ablution which is of three types: partial ablution (wuḍū’), complete ablution (ghusl) and dry ablution (tayammum). There are situations in which one or more of them becomes obligatory, and at times they are counted as recommended. Three kinds of najas (physical filth) are as follows: (1) Mughallaẓah, which means najas of dog and pig, and its cleansing is seven times of washing, one of which must be from water which contains sand, clay or soil. (2) Mukhaffafah, which means the urine of an infant boy under two years of age who feeds only on milk. Its cleansing is after removing the substance of the najas, sprinkling of water on the area of the najas. (3) Mutawassiṭah, which means all impure things excluding the two mentioned above, and its cleansing is basically by water until the colour, taste and smell of najas are gone.

Water is the primary purifier of ḥadath and najas. Allah says, "We send down purifying water from the sky" (al-Furqān: 25). If water is not available or cannot be used, the next option is soil, i.e., dry ablution (tayammum), as Allah says, "(if you) cannot find water, then purify yourselves with clean earth, wiping your faces and hands" (al-Mā’idah: 6). From the different types of water, ṭahārah can be attained only through ṭahūr water, which is pure in itself and good to be used to purify others. Water from rain, sea, river and well are included in this type. The second type is ṭāhir which is water with a change in its colour, smell or taste by a pure substance. It can be drunk or used but is not qualified for ṭahārah. The third type is mustaʿmal, which means water used for purification, like the drops drifting from the organ during wuḍū’ or ghusl. It cannot be used for ṭahārah purposes.

The concept of water as a purifier in fiqh al-ṭahārah directly aligns with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, Clean Water and Sanitation. The distinction between different types of water (ṭahūr, ṭāhir, and mustaʿmal) highlights the value of clean, accessible water for purification and hygiene. The use of pure water from natural sources like rain, rivers, and wells emphasizes the importance of maintaining water quality and managing resources sustainably. Moreover, the practice of tayammum in the absence of water promotes environmental consciousness by encouraging the use of alternative clean resources, which supports responsible consumption and conservation of water, further contributing to SDG 6.

The acceptance of prayers depends on the cleanliness of the trio of body, garment and place of worship. In addition, fiqh al-Ṭahārah places great emphasis on maintaining the healthy nature of the body and flawless physical appearance. For example, it includes the instructions on circumcision, oiling the hair, cutting nails, removing pubic and underarm hair, well-maintenance of moustache and beard, applying kuḥl (surmah or antimony) in the eyes, using perfume and so son. These acts are called sunan al-Fitrah (acts that correspond to the primordial nature of human beings).

Oral hygiene is given added importance to the extent that some scholars counted more than 70 benefits of both physical and spiritual included in using siwāk (brushing) (al-Bakrī, 1300 AH, p. 44.). The importance of brushing is extolled in the sayings of the Prophet (ﷺ), for example, “Were it not that I might over-burden the Believers I would have ordered them to use siwāk at the time of every prayer” (al-Bukhārī:1:303). Therefore, brushing is highly recommended at certain occasions such as wuḍū’, prayer, reciting the Qur’an or hadith or religious knowledge, entering home, waking up, mouth is affected with bad breath, and for a person on a deathbed. Rinsing the mouth and nose three times and swirling the water around are recommended in the beginning of each wuḍū’.

Fiqh al-Ṭahārah discusses toilet etiquette in detail with a set of rules in the sub-chapter named istinjā’ that means cleansing the private parts after relieving oneself. In this, fiqh gives exhaustive instructions on keeping oneself clean after relieving but without causing harm to others, including the ecosystem. For example, it explains how to make the urethra free from drops of urine; this act is called istibrāʾ which is an obligatory duty. Istinjā’ should be away from standing water, people's pathways, or shade or a fruit tree, and to do otherwise is reprehensible (makrūh). The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Beware of being one of those who were cursed." His Companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah! Who are they?" He said, "Those who urinate where people pass by and rest” (Muslim: 397). The main reason for this prohibition is that it disturbs people and pollutes the environment. Dumping plastic, bottles and waste in public places is also prohibited because of the reason mentioned above. In addition, talking, facing or turning back to qiblah while relieving himself are prohibited.

The guidelines in fiqh al-ṭahārah regarding toilet etiquette and cleanliness align with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 3, 6, and 12. The emphasis on personal hygiene, such as the practice of istinjā’ and istibrāʾ, promotes health and reduces the spread of diseases, contributing to better public health (Goal 3). The prohibition of urinating in public spaces and contamination of water bodies supports clean water and sanitation (Goal 6). Additionally, the prohibition of waste dumping in public areas aligns with responsible consumption and production (Goal 12), encouraging sustainable waste management and environmental protection. These principles highlight the importance of personal and environmental cleanliness in fostering healthier, more sustainable communities.

Conclusion

The principles outlined in fiqh al-ṭahārah, particularly those related to cleanliness, hygiene, and waste management, form a foundational framework for sustainability discourses. By emphasizing personal hygiene, environmental respect, and responsible resource use, fiqh al-ṭahārah aligns with key sustainability goals such as health, clean water, sanitation, and waste management. The teachings on avoiding harm to others and the environment through proper disposal of waste, maintaining clean public spaces, and conserving water reflect an Islamic understanding of sustainability that goes beyond mere physical cleanliness. In this sense, fiqh al-ṭahārah provides a holistic approach to sustainability, underscoring the interconnectedness of human well-being, environmental health, and ethical responsibility—principles that are central to contemporary sustainability efforts. Therefore, fiqh al-ṭahārah serves as a base for sustainability discourses by offering practical, ethical guidelines that promote sustainable living in harmony with both nature and society.

References

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Hasan al-Quḍāt, Muḥammad Aḥmad. (1998). Aḥkām al-Ṭahārah fī al-Fiqh al-Islāmī. Jordan: Maktabat al-Risālah al-Ḥadīthah.

Al-Haytamī, Ibn Ḥajar. (1983). Tuḥfat al-Muḥtāj bi Sharaḥ al-Minhāj. Egypt: Al-Maktabat al-Tijāriyat al-Kubrā.

Al-Nawawī, Abū Zakariyyā Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf. (1405 AH). Majmūʿ Sharaḥ al-Muhadhdhab. Jiddah: Maktabat al-Irshād.

Ibn Qudāmah, ʻAbd Allāh ibn Aḥmad. (1405 AH). Al-Mughnī fī Fiqh al-Imām Aḥmad bin Ḥanbal al-Shaybānī. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr.

Al-Qarḍāwī, Yūsuf. (2008). Fiqh al-Ṭahārah. Cairo: Maktabat Wahbah.

About the author:

Sayyed Mohamed Muhsin is an Assistant Professor of Islamic Jurisprudence at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in Kuala Lumpur. He also serves as the Editor-in-Chief of Islamonweb-English and leads the Medico-Fiqh Institute project.

Email: muhsin@iium.edu.my;sayedmuhsinvt@gmail.com